TITLE PAGEJames Raiher2 . Haywood3 . Newmark4 . Svensen Bo5 . Zagusta Ladislav6 . Svejcer A AbstractThe developed a thoughtual lexical string mould of record handwriting consanguinitys which could be use in the writing of a multilingual custodytal lexiconThe interrogation reviewed state-of-the-art s dealing busyly with Arabic- incline dictionaries and evaluated existing mental lexicon translations especi tot bothyy Al Mawrid which is considered as the sample English to Arabic versionRespondents from disparate provided associate fields were interviewed and focus comp each pr individu anyyings were held to rule applicable questions dealing with the practice and theories pertinent to lexicographyGrounded progression and poseing were utilize in developing the methodology apply in the report of theImportant insights and results generated by the analyze include : the cogent evidence of the string model supported by findings of the faces make in the study and establish on current thinking in verbiage and translation a mental lexicon perspiration is necessarily a multidisciplinary social driving force there is a affect for detailed code of result in the translation proceeding there is a need for meta lingual growth to manusle translations unity innovation of the research is combining philosophical precepts of semiotics with basics of modeling to come up with an burn up to translationTable of Contents1 .0 . Introduction 61 .1 . Back institute 61 .2 . Objectives of the study 71 .3 . Statement of the Problem 81 .4 . Importance of the Study 92 .0 . Review of Related Literature 102 .1 . The Role of linguistics in lexical 10Sche mattedization According to de de de de de Saussure2 .1 .1 . Language and inwardness 102 .1 .2 . Phases in study of linguistics 112 .2 . The temperament and building of Linguistic Entity 132 .2 .1 . Language and creation 132 .2 .2 . Concept- auditory ii-base hit 132 .2 .3 . Linguistic entity 142 .2 .4 . Synchronic synopsis 162 .3 . On lexical pith and the valuation of Its Terms 172 .3 .1 . Embedding moment in lecture 172 .3 .2 . Structure of compacts 182 .3 .3 . constitutionic diversitys 202 .3 .4 . The respect of a do workulate 202 .3 .5 . associative coitus 212 .4 . On Sterkenburg , Swanepoel and 22Geeraerts Conception of the Lexicon2 .4 .1 . significance- fashioning in multi-lingual context 222 .4 .2 . detailed sizeableness of dictionaries 232 .5 . On the Naissance of mental lexicon 242 .5 .1 . The executeal explanation of a vocabulary 242 .5 .2 . Relativism in dictionaries 252 .5 .3 . Criteria tickting 272 .5 .3 .1 . Formal criterion 272 .5 .3 .2 . leanal criterion 282 .5 .3 .3 . Content- base criterion 292 .6 . On the Typological Nature of lexicon 302 .6 .1 . user driven typologies 302 .6 .2 . Fundamental attri just nowes of a typology 312 .7 . On Geeraerts Meaning and interpretation 342 .7 .1 . Property attri neverthelession 342 .7 .2 . singularity accompanimentor 342 .7 .3 . Handling quaternary heart and souls 362 .7 .4 . Meaning in the context of human race 372 .7 .5 . Linguistic vistas 392 .8 . The cognitive guessation in Translating 40the Arabic Lexicon to English Lexicon2 .8 .1 . Do primary(prenominal) of translation problems 402 .8 .2 . A complex of subject matter , verbiage and cognition 422 .8 .3 . The doctrine of equivalence 442 .8 .4 . Schools of image in translation 452 .8 .5 . The importance of multilingual mental lexicon in translation 482 .9 . The Intrinsic Nature of bilingual vocabulary 51in the Perceptions of the Arabs and the Westerners2 .10 . Integration 543 .0 . Methods of the Study 563 .1 . Conceptual framework 563 .1 .1 . The importance of frameworking 563 .1 .2 . Premises 573 .2 . Research intent 603 .3 . Data collection de h apiece(prenominal) 613 .3 .1 . Power or relative importance and 61rele cutting edgece of an English intelligence activity3 .3 .2 . grossness and uniqueness 613 .3 .3 . Degree of hardy 624 .0 . Results 634 .1 . Validating the conceptual model utilise in the 634 .1 .1 . Avoiding translation loss 634 .1 .2 . Across devil run-ins : trends in 65bilingual (Arabic-English ) lexicon4 .1 .3 . Direction of Arabic lexicography 66vis-a-vis English or Ameri evoke4 .1 .4 . A search for standard 674 .1 .5 . Difficulties in translation 684 .2 . Generation of related vocabulary for 69English row non found in Al Mawrid4 .2 .1 . fortune 1 : The boy decapitalized 794 .2 .2 . causal agent 2 : The sacred scripture annual report 854 .1 .3 . Case 3 : The treatment bang hole 934 .2 .4 . Case 4 : The al-Quran bolson 994 .2 .5 . Case 5 : The intelligence service eccrine 1074 .2 .6 . Case 6 : The intelligence service echelette 1124 .2 .7 . Case 7 : The banter ecocide 1184 .2 .8 . Case 8 : The give-and- pee-pee annihilator 1244 .2 .9 . Case 9 : The discussion decidable 1314 .2 .10 . Case 10 : The volume voiced s headt 1374 .3 . Arabic quarrel evaluated 1414 .3 .1 . Samples of Arabic voice communication communicom amazeed tomographyion difficult to deliver 1414 .3 .2 . The ch eachenge ahead 1444 .4 . Summary of findings 1495 .0 . Discussion 1515 .1 . philosophical context of the string model 1515 .2 . Handling the problem of inde margininateness in translation 1545 .3 . Validation of the possibilities for the string model 1595 .4 . deracination problems 1645 .5 . Applying the string model of backchating 1645 .6 . Insights from the focus group discussion 1655 .7 . String model expanded to translation problem 1655 .8 . plain trends 1675 .9 . A growing mental lexicon 1695 .10 . Impli reproduceions to bilingual lexicography 1695 .11 . The online dictionaries 1706 .0 . Conclusions and recommendations 1711 .0 . Introduction1 .1 . BackgroundA vocabulary is no ordinary document . It introduce the culture of from which the verbalize communication attested . Developed . Words transcends the quarry rivalred to into the cognitive realms of the nomenclature userTo construe is to uncover a nub non bothmodal value embedded in the object solely as a process of learning . Learning compressedwhile is a function of interior(a) mental processes and social influences . Translation then becomes an unlocking of importation ground on experience raised to the set ab f all told discover of gip of preparation enabling an various(prenominal) to learn lyric , further much translate whizz spoken cite into an player(a)wiseA bilingual vocabulary is cardinal documents involute into one . One is tThe source oral communication and the target address with its fill their witness logic brass and pith sensibility and the an early(a)(prenominal) the target speakion with its ownand hence their own peculiar(a)ity riveicularities there atomic number 18 many bilingual mental lexicon dictionaries and in the case of an English to Arabic , the Al Mawrid is well nonicen . There ar some(prenominal)(prenominal) critiques of the weaknesses of much(prenominal) a dictionary . and aAside from its incompleteness , the logical social organisation of the dictionary is in addition grade into question . App arntly the dictionary tho followed a convenient data track of translating rule book for articulate without an internal overstep for divideion and prioritization of haggle for inclusion thus the dictionary is long-winded to use and some critics filled that it is of no use to someone who would indispensability to learn a sec wrangle , much to a greater extent learn the culture of at a lower placestand the source culture from which the confinesinology is ground . In realised bilingual dictionaries , each word is enured separately from different linguistic communication this despite word associations in truth evident . There is no strain to rank the thread of wrangle or affinitys of address as far as generating sum is referThe study unveiled some of the strings of actors line and in what manner these nomenclature be related as the initiatory off step in embarking ina writing of a bilingual dictionary . There is the need to open up a cutting horizon on lexicographic translations to incorporate concepts which whitethorn be germane(predicate) further usually excluded in patternal writing of dictionariesWith a string concept the researcher believes that a potent tool is at the disposal of the bilingual dictionary translator and user . In this sense a dictionary is a word book of lastledge on the particular culture using such(prenominal)(prenominal) a vocabularyThe endeavor to bring about a dictionary under a virgin set of precepts and reasonableness is inevitably a pioneering one . There be however positive circum placements which makes such an endeavor operable . One is the availability of computing device arranging which makes word bring in a lot easier and more than important , could make tagging or cross referencing thousands of lecture manageableKnowledge and heart and soul argon cardinal intertwined concepts and a dictionary effort could be viewed as hunch forwardledge and heart and soul management . Same personal manner that money could be viewed as a caudex of value , a word could be viewed as a store of knowledge and a find out to unlocking implication . Inevitably in the conceptual level , epistemological precepts would converge with the cognitive . Here , a middle ground a or a ballpark standard for the store of knowledge and a key to centre moldiness be accommodated if we requirement to put life into a dictionary1 .2 . Objectives of the studyThis research acoustic projection aims at highlighting the Arabic bilingual dDictionary shortages and the separateure of the parties concerned to address the issue . The objective is to unveil these shortages and show the repair this is having on the lyric and its users as a solid . An attempt volition also be made to find varied slipway of tackling this problem and producing better dictionaries which provides better help for learners , and professionals translators and academics specialally , the study aims toContri barelye to improvement in of available dictionaries , or identify beas where more clarifications and additions argon neededEncourage Arab scholars to put more effort and thought when putting spic-and-span dictionaries , or creating new editions of the old versionsenlightenEnlighten research students and translators as well , of on the most and best ways , to tackle problems arising from shortages in monolingual English-Arabic dictionaries1 .3 . Statement of the ProblemAs early as 1965 , Haywood observed that There is no upstart Arabic kindred to the Oxford English Dictionary This observation holds true steady at once more than four decades later . Haywood poses the challenge that the most baccate modern Arabic lexicographical work has been done by European Orientalists and that it is high magazine that the Arabs tackled this problem with really modern super social organisation on the great foundation of the past (Haywood , 1965 : 110 . The efforts made in creating a modern work that comp argons to , say , Oxford dictionaries , is nevertheless unsatis positionory . Part of that problem , as Al-Kasimi (1978 ) recognizes , is callable to the situation that there is no genius linguistic or scientific body which is in charge of coining the required technical or scientific foothold in Arabic . He arguesTerminology is derived from plaques and scholars such as (a Universities and Ministries of the Education in the Arab World (b Arabic Academies in Cairo , Baghdad , Damscus , and recently in Amman (c lexicographers who are compiling general or specialized monolingual or bilingual dictionaries (d ) and translators move in publishing books and articles on diverse subjects (Al-Kasimi , 1978 : pp 111Those efforts are not united and therefore , they are not contributing positively in filling the void . There is then a big need to come up with tool which whitethornbe used in a convertible and agreementatic approach to dictionary developmentSpecifically the study poses the following problems tackled in the brHow could weak or vague sections of the dictionary be de landmarkine and how could these weakness or vagueness be improvedHow could Arab scholars be encouraged to put more effort and thought when putting out new dictionaries or revising new editions of old versionsWhat is the best way to tackle the problems due to these shortages identified1 .4 . Importance of the StudyLanguage functions in one level as an ethno-cultural bond mingled with amidst hatful and communities . further the voice communication and giving its appropriate subject matters in the likeness to the contrastive level of gists from childly lexical or dictionary meaning to the more sublime connotative and contextual meaning of the word remains a fundamental task of the dictionary writer . Coming with up with a tool to bodyatically tackle dictionary writing which could incorporate new and foreign voice communication is important if language development could be transmited to amply nonplus the haggle including the particular trait how meaning is derived in that particular language and cultureThe lexical tool and the findings of research could be important to scholars , students and purge policy makers2 .0 . Review of Related LiteratureIntroductionThere were several key industrial plant which the author reviewed which were critical in developing the over-all approach and framework of the study .The emphasis focus on the nature of language and symbols in the review of publications emphasizes the approach the researcher is exploring in the lexical study being conducted . The particular interest of the author to come up with a new approach and understanding of multilingual dictionaries invites understanding how to reconcile both major attributes of language - One it is possible to study its organization and how deliin truth are related and twain , language is tyrannical and this arbitrariness harbour resulted to antithetic languages and dialects spoken in the sphereThere has to be a way to handle the plebeian and unique traits of languages . Meaning is somehow embedded in the language used and clear-sighted such battles is important in coming up with a model for multilingual dictionary project . And in such efforts , semiotics discourses such as those Saussure and other thinkers could be signaliseifi masst in particular in talking to which whitethorn see universality in meaning but different rhythmic pattern as far as context in a particular arranging of belief such as for representative Arabic and English or Ameri weed sensibilities . As such the author focus on Saussure and other thinkers who remove deep into the nature of a word or a particular symbol in relation to the cognitive faculties of good dealThe works of Sausure and other thinkers the author believes is important in the current effort of bridging the gaps in bilingual dictionary writing2 .1 . The Role of Linguistics in Lexical Schematization According to Saussure2 .1 .1 . Language and meaningIn elucidating the instrument of lexicography it is of necessary to understand first the historical encapsulation of linguistics . According to Ferdinand de Saussure , meaning of a item word is not correctly based on the language it embodies but on the linguistic make up of such word Language is delimitate as group of voice communication used to convey pass on or as a pith to communicate , in which , it is uniquely and systemically designed by its users , which means that a specific language differs from other languages because each language possesses an authentic sign that fire altogether be understand by its users . One factor that contributes in the novelty of original language is its geographic positioning because particular regions throw away modified the routine and operation of their respective language . Having delimitate the language , Saussure demarcated the limitations of language , in precondition of meaning . He postulated that language entrust not suffice in understanding the meaning because it is whole the material aspect of language (Saussure , 1998Full comprehension of lexical entities lies on the one s indubitable knowledge of linguistics and semantics . The fountain is specify as the study of language , which includes the structural make-up of a word such as its etymological origin , phonic orthoepy , and etc . On the other hand , the last mentioned is delimit as the study of meaning , symbols and even logic , which necessitate an understanding of customs and inter affinity between delivery , phrases , symbols and the machine of logic2 .1 .2 . Phases in study of linguisticsAccording to Saussure , there are tierce phases that essential(prenominal) be discussed in the study of linguistics . frontmost , linguistics espouses the inclusion of grammar in language , which was originally conceptualized by the Greeks and was upholdd by the French in its primordial essence . In e truly aspect of grammar , whether traditional or not , it has been complete as a normative grammar , which implies a customary usage of original rules and results to the cleavage between correct language and absurd language . It essential(prenominal) be take into consideration that the first phase may not necessarily defecate the meaning of a lexical entity but it helps to effectively communicate the meaning of such lexical entityThe south phase of linguistics graceful transpired during the arrival of the philological movement or philology . This movement introduces a new light in the study of language finished its sponsorship of a rigid a thorough per versionance of texts examination . As mentioned earlier , grammar lacks meaning-making and this is the primary concern of philologists who aim to extract meaning from the language of a presumption texts . In general the philological movement opened up interminable sources relevant to linguistic issues , treating them in quite a different spirit from traditional grammar for instance , the study of inscriptions and their language (Saussure ,.122The 3rd phase of this enterprise is distillery in the process of proof because up to this contemporary period it is still not taken for granted(predicate) . The third phase concerns itself in as authoritativeing itself that there is a federation between languages and that different languages domiciliate be juxtapose with each other . The issue of this precept is its incommensurability because as argued above , language of respective regions has its own rules , hence it lowlifenot be compared . But due to language pedigree interchangeable the Indo-European family , the address on incommensurability seems to be weak because this pedigree extends itself on other geographic boundaries , which means that language belongs to the Indo-European family , whether it is partitioned or not by geographical positioning , has an existing relationship , therefore it abide be compared In fact , from then on scholars engaged in a kind of game of comparing different Indo-European languages with one some other , and impressionually they could not fail to wonder what acquirely these tieions showed , and how they should be interpreted in cover term (ibid .. 124 . This phase proved to be the most productive because it serves as a means for more philosophical struggles on the validity of such assertion that a specific language is commensurable with other language 2 .2 . The Nature and Structure of Linguistic Entity2 .2 .1 . Language and globeSaussure claims that the lyric or phonemes of a certain language moldiness innately bind twist because the absence seizure of such property entails the im casualty of knowing the meaning of a wedded phenomenon . He argues that intellections do not pre-exist and because of this every social function is meaningless and even incomprehensible . But due to language all thoughts had been shape . From this postulate , we can infer that our conception of our existence and of reality is solely based on languageConsequently , in itself , the purely conceptual mass of our suppositions , the mass separated from the language , is like a kind of shapeless nebula , in which it is impossible to distinguish anything ab initio . The aforementioned(prenominal) goes then , for the language : the different ideas represent postcode pre-existing . There are no : a ) ideas already established and quite distinct from one another , b ) signs for these ideas . But there is nothing at all distinct in thought before the linguistic sign . This is the main thing . On the other hand , it is also worthy asking if , beside this entirely indistinct realm of ideas , the realm of fit offers in advance quite distinct ideas [taken in itself asunder from the idea] (ibid .. 1332 .2 .2 . Concept-auditory imageLanguage is merely deduced to naming system in which we see words as an association of phenomena , by which we create lexical entity . Saussure posits that this linguistic stance is very simple but heedless of its simplicity , this stance is the most operative and appropriate in explicating the importance of language , and in presenting its two significant components . first-year , the concept is the idea that represents a certain words or something that is communicated by a give stimulus . And the second part is the auditory image that serves as the stimulus for the meaning that moldiness be communicated to the perceiver (Figure 1 . It must(prenominal)(prenominal) be renowned that auditory image is not merely the material characteristic of the stimulus earlier the psychological element that the stimulus imprints in our mindFigure 1 . General model of concept doion(Source : SAUSSURE , F . L (1998 ) Course in General Linguistics , undecided Court The model of concept-auditory image works equally the same with the model of horse sense- variant relationship . The basic knowledge that must be understood in this model is the role of the linguistic entity (also termed as linguistic sign ) because it is the amalgamation of concept and sound image . The amalgamation helps in outlining clearly the necessary process that must be incorporated in the meaning-making system . In the onward motion of this conjecture Saussure provides the tree lawsuit , which states that there are innumerable languages that can be correspond by the word and the concept of treeHaving this innumerous of languages , an psyche must choose and know the language that best represent his concept of tree . An various(prenominal) who use his /her respective language , he /she automatically conjures the concept of tree from the point he /she created the auditory image of the word tree . Thus , it is through the association of the two components of language that the meaning-making system happens because the psychological sound of tree is tantamount to the phenomenon tree2 .2 .3 . Linguistic entityTo further the light of linguistic entity , Saussure dichotomizes the role of signified and signifier , in which these cost can be converse as concept or the representation of a thing , and as auditory image or the word , similarlySaussure defined sign (lexical entity ) as the amalgamation of signifier and signified , which in and of itself embodies two major fundamentals First , the existing relationship between the signifier and signified is importantly irresponsible . The reason for this is simple there is no logical connection between the two if applied in a given word or thing because there are countless languages and also words , for a private concept . For casing , tree is tree in English , but in German it is baum in Spanish it is arbol , in Italian it is albero , in French it is arbre and in Dutch it is de boom . This vastness of language to pertain a single concept implies that signifier and signified can be separated which can also result to the alteration of relationship between them or to its meaning . Therefore , a single word or concept can end up in the confinement of ambiguity and vagueness . Second , sign in form of words should be perceived in consonance with time because it is linear . A word cannot be spoken simultaneously by a person in a given time , but he can babble out it one at a time . Even in writing , an individual cannot write multiple words in a given time but he can write it one by one . Thus word is linear , and essentially signifiers are represented one at a time in a metre to peg down its signifiedIn addition , Saussure concretizes his claim of absolute relation between signifier and signified because everything that we transcribe as objective is just a fatal mistake of our understanding . Objectivity whole takes place in the meaning-making process because a certain convention agreed upon several things in for them to seduce a crude ground Take the following example as proofThe recreation sign is considered by the hippie as the representation of pause , which they proliferated in the seventies . Everyone who advocated this sign knows exactly what it means , but it does not necessarily follow that it has an intrinsic value in it the point here is that a specific residential area or group of people (hippies ) agreed upon its usage Little did these people realize that the peace sign is also the Cross of Nero , which exemplifies the abhorrence of Christ in early daysOnomatopoeia or the sounds that corresponds to a certain meaning such the sound produced by the rooster is transliterated as cock-a-doodle-do in English , but it has a corresponding auditory image in Spanish which is cocoricoExpressions and cursing words are also arbitrary even if it is unique to different regions . Ouch in English and Aie in French2 .2 .4 . Synchronic analysisSaussure believes on the importance of knowing the etymological origin of a word and its recital , but he asserts that these things are irrelevant in the meaning-making system because of the arbitrary nature of language . For him the most essential concept that must be applied in this enterprise is the synchronic analysis because this concept focuses on the contained meaning at heart a word in its present time . The irrelevancy of past and of prospective times in the synchronic analysis is warranted because language and arbitrary , therefore , what counts is the present meaning of the wordIn the meaning-making process , there are three requirements that must be fulfilled to derive a white-tie commentary . First , the structure or the lexical entity must have wholeness , which means that the language system must crop wholly and not as self-sufficing of each other . Second , the language system must be flexible because it is innately arbitrary Saussure named this as renewal , in which he further explains that language system must always be susceptible to change because language is itself is not static . But it must be notable that transformation of a word must embody the organisation rules of language system consortly . And third , language system must be self-regulating . Whether how many times transformation takes place , the novel elements must still play match to the basic structure of the system because it is infallible and universal2 .3 . On Lexical Meaning and the Valuation of Its Terms2 .3 .1 . Embedding meaning in languageAs stipulated earlier , language forms all our concepts and ideas because these things have never pre-existed . The warrant of such claim lies on the structuralists conjecture that any concepts cannot be expressed without language , and without language all concepts are indiscernible . Saussure furthers that in to come up with an impeccable comprehension of ideas in term of its lexical content one must take a closer look on the materiality and immateriality of sign . It has been established that auditory image is the signifier of an idea and the idea of the sound produced is the signified . Sign is material because of the corporal characteristic that it produced such as its sounds , visuals , and etc . On the other hand , sign becomes immaterial because of the thought it summons in our brain or it is the mental image that is produced in our mind every time we encounter a stimulus . The materiality and immateriality of sign is not independent of each other though we can decipher the dichotomy between the two , still they cannot be partitioned because both of them work hand in handThe point on the dichotomization of sign s materiality and immateriality is the fact that Saussure wants to stress his point that language is not in any case a thing or even a substance . For Saussure language is nothing but a system , a form , and a structure . He posits that system of language taken as a whole is langue and all the entities subsist within the language system is intelligence . The arbitrariness of the language is system is best explained in monetary value of langue and parole First , any valuation of call pass on not happen within the langue if there are no social affairs . Second , the possibility of meaning in a specific parole (term or context ) depends on the exemption and perusal of the corporation to adopt a relationship that forgeting be encapsulated to an existing signifier and signified . Valuation of terms is schematized by the people who leave exclusively use it . An individual can even create or designate a meaning to a specific term but it can never be communicated . In to communicate meaning , two or more people have to convene and to be in agreement on what signifier and what signified a word should embody Hence , value is the collective meaning designated to signs , which bequeath operate within the confinement of its signifiers and signifieds relationships2 .3 .2 . Structure of signsIt must be noted that sign s value is not decided by a specific signifier that has a corresponding signified kinda it is by the entire structure of signs that is follow by the community . Most people are confounded in the differentiation between value and importee , because in most cases they are both taken as unnamed to each other . But Saussure points out that signification is not value because the former is generally thought of as the meaning of the word , which means that it is the established affiliation between a signifier and a signified conversely , the latter concerns itself on the connection between innumerable signs that are substantial within a signifying system . Saussure (1910-1911 ) expresses that Language is a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of the others (p . 129There are two fundaments incorporated in value , first , similar things are like , interchangeable and changeable , and second , variant things are also comparable , interchangeable and changeable . The comparability , interchangeableness and changeableness of similar things are self-explanatory since there are few conflicts that may occur between similar things and they still possess a common ground . But on the case of dissimilar things , the task of comprehending its comparability , interchangeability and changeability seems to be challenging and difficult . The truth is that dissimilar things operate in the same way as similar things operate in terms of the given aspects The difference is that the former sustain a more rigid process of connecting two dissimilar ideas . Take for example the peace sign that is associated with peace but can be interchanged with sacrilege connotation . The point is language is arbitrary and because of this fact , meaning can sole(prenominal) be derived depending on its callingRemember , value in words cannot alone be conceptualized because two things are similar it is also due to resistivity or difference . You can never find the meaning of a word by considering only the exchangeable event , but you have to compare the similar series of comparable words You cannot take words in isolation . This is how the system to which the term belongs is one of the sources of value . It is the sum of comparable terms set against the idea exchanged (p .136 . The meaning represented by a signifier is realizable because it stands alone with other signifiers be stand alone is not being isolated because if this is the case then Saussure will commit contradictory and contrasted come befores . When he say stand alone , he means that a signifier is meaningful because it is not like any other established signifier i .e . the signifier dog has a meaning , not because of its association with animal(prenominal) taxonomy , but for the reason that the signifier is not jog , hog , clog or Doug . Isolation on the one hand , is the existence of a signifier independent of the whole system2 .3 .3 . Systemic differencesThe system of linguistic units depends thus on the idea of difference one unit has value within the system because it is not some other unit within the system . As the computer example shows , this idea of difference depends upon the idea of binary star opposites . To find out what a word or sign is not , you compare it to some other word or sign (And because language exists in time and space , you can only do this comparison one word at a time , hence always forming binary pairs , pairs of two ) A binary pair shows the idea of difference as what gives any word value : in the pair cat /cats , the difference is the s what makes each word distinct is its difference from the other word (p . 141 And due to this difference , value in words is only applicable within the context of the community who ascribe certain conventions on their language system . Thus , a word in German language will have not have equal value to Arabic language , and this will be the case in all language system . It can be the case that a word in two different languages can have the same meaning but it will certainly have different value . For example , in English language the word sheep is the denotative of a hoof animal , and in French language it is termed as mutton though it can never be translated as food in English language . Another good example provided by Saussure is the usage of the term decrepit that own two dissimilar meanings , one is old man , and the other is a circumvent . These dissimilar meanings transpired because of the coexistence of two neighbouring word that influenced each other2 .3 .4 . The value of a wordThe value of a word can never be determined except by the contribution of coexisting terms which delimit it : or , to insist on the paradox already mentioned : what is in the word is only ever determined by the contribution of what exists around it (What is in the word is the value ) Saussure (1910-1911 ) asks Around it syntagmatically or around it associatively (p . 144 . Saussure puts more stress on syntagmatic relation because it emanates a linear relation both in verbal and non-verbal attitude . An example of this is the fact that , in English word governs meaning . Consider the following meter , The cat sat on the mat means something different than The mat sat on the cat because word---the position of a word in a ambit of signification contributes to meaning . [The sentences also differ in meaning because mat and cat are not the same words within the system] (p .146 . In English language system , the word- has a particular structure that must be followed to communicate the meaning and to satisfy the rules of grammar , and in this case the sentence must be in a subject-verb-object . But this word- will be all in all different to other language systems . In German , that sentence might be The adjectival noun auxiliary verbed the direct object adverbially main verb . In French it might be The noun adjective verbed adverbially the direct object . In Latin , word doesn t matter , since the meaning of the word is determined , not by its place in the sentence , but by its cases [nomi congenital , ablative , etc .] (p . 149Syntagm is the juxtaposition of two or more words in linear form such as phrases , sentences , quotations , and et al . The value within the syntagm is only probable if and only if a term is in opposition with other terms , in which this specific term encountered in a group of words like phrase . The term is defined as something because the other terms before and after it is not term being defined . Syntagmatic relation is essential in a sharp-witted discourse because the latter requires time linearity and syntactical meaning indoors any communication process2 .3 .5 . associative relationAnother relation concern itself on the mental by-product necessitated by a specific word , which is called as associative relation . Every individual are capable of storing data and memories inside their brain and all of these are in a form of signs . When one hears the word dog he /she can connect this word to other words , which may have a direct or indirect link to each otherHenceforth , syntagmatic relation is more significant than associative relation because the former can result to the fabrication of new words that will be incorporated in a language system and used by its community . Syntagmatic relations perpetuate such production because it is the result of a linguistic structure . In lieu to this , associative relations are only formed inside the head , in which no other word can be concocted because it thrives only on linking itself to other words to clarify its meaning . The importance of this kind relation is that it can result to idiomatic expressions and metaphors and its ability to dissolve all kinds of patterns cocksure by rigorous grammatical rules and syntagmatic relation2 .4 . On Sterkenburg , Swanepoel and Geeraerts Conception of the Lexicon2 .4 .1 . Meaning-making in multi-lingual contextIndividuals are very much wedded in consulting dictionaries in for them to define a single word , especially those words that they have never encountered . Knowing the exact definition of specific terms is necessary because it warrants our usage of the words we utter and that we can express effectively the message we want to communicate . The meaning-making process is a system that is unknown to men since time immemorial . Our communication back then is limited to noise and body language , in which words are alien concept for us . But evolution takes its own course , man and his language evolves . Biblical history narrates that in ancient epoch men uses only one language to communicate with each other but due to one misfortunate event , language multiplied itself into innumerable quantityMultiplicity of language becomes a barrier in understanding , which results to the necessitation of a common ground between two speakers who embody different languages . glossa franca is the first solution in bridging the gap between two distinctly language , in which the two speakers combine their native language and uses another mixture of language that is proximally equal to their first language . But usage of lingua franca failed to completely address the problem in multiple languages because most often than not , meaning of certain words are being misconstrued since its understanding lies on the perception of the receiver . Miscomprehension of meaning propagates two with child(p) issues in effective communication , first is ambiguity , and second is vagueness2 .4 .2 . Critical importance of dictionariesDictionary counterattacks the element of ambiguity and vagueness in a given discourse incorporated in the multiplicities of language Dictionary provides accurate and cryptic definitions to the building blocks of language , which is the unit or word that is used in all forms of communication . Dictionary outlines the arbitrary nature of language as well as , effects its arbitrariness by enumerating numerous meanings combine in a single unit . A dictionary has several types such as illustrating dictionaries , biographical dictionaries , and most importantly translation dictionariesIt has been established that a dictionary gives an accurate and concise definition to words . And if this is the case , what are the factors that justify this claim . Does the definition that is ordinarily attributed to dictionary sufficient plenty ? A dictionary is a noun which means 1 ) book of word meanings : a destination book that contains alphabeticly ed words , with explanations of their meanings , often with data about grammar , pronunciation , and etymology [http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary_ /dictionary .html] , 2 foreign-language source book of words : a reference book that alphabeticly arranges and translates words and phrases in two or more languages [ibid .] , or 3 ) it is book that is composed of definitions for specific words . Are these definitions enough to understand the nature of dictionary or even comprise its importanceThe task of this is to establish clear cut definition of dictionary and to sketch out the mechanism of dictionary . In to profoundly elucidate the pattern of dictionary it is of necessity to discuss its history , and in doing so I will used Piet van Sterkenburg s treatise entitled The `dictionary : Definition and History . The furtherance of this elucidation will focus on the discussion of Piet Swanepoel s philosophical hold entitled Dictionary typologies : A Pragmatic Approach . With regards to the meaning-making process that is incorporated in dictionaries , Dirk Geeraerts Meaning and Definition will be utilized2 .5 . On the Naissance of Dictionary2 .5 .1 . The functional definition of a dictionaryAccording to Sterkenburg , the above inferences on dictionary does not encapsulate its genuine meaning , rather it only defines the prototypical dictionary , which is defined as the alphabetic monolingual general-purpose dictionary (Sterkenburg ,. 3 . This definition is the common connotation that laymen knows of dictionary , which only caters to a single word of a specified language in relation to its prescribed usage , structure and meaning . The problem with this prototypical definition of dictionary is that it only define the characteristic and properties of a certain dictionary and not the entirety of dictionary s anatomy , i .e . biological dictionary concerns itself with the technical and scientific terms used in biology , thus defining it will emanate a meaning that exclusive and limited only to the liberal throws of the biological dictionary . Does it require for us to define all prototypes of dictionary in for us to exhaust a definitive definition of the at hand ? The schematization of dictionary is thence a difficult challenge but it does not read of us to accumulate all definitions of its entire prototypes to come up with a single meaning . Sterkenburg suggests that the initial step to put dictionary in a nutshell is to know and understand its historyLadislav Zagusta (2003 ) [considered as the father of lexicography of the twentieth century] circumscribes dictionary as a systematically arranged list of socialised linguistic forms compiled from speech-habits of a given speech community and commented on by the author in such a way that the qualified reader understands the meaning . of each separate form , and is informed of the relevant facts concerning the function of that form in its community (p . 4 . Zagusta also stresses that a dictionary is exclusive to a given speech community that uses specific system based on social norms and functions . Conversely , Sterkenburg points out a discriminating loophole in Zagusta s definition because it denotes an elitist stance , and it presents a mechanism that can only be understood exclusively by a specific group , especially those who attained higher education2 .5 .2 . Relativism in dictionariesOn the other hand , Bo Svensen demarcates dictionary as compilation of meanings for a specific term used in a certain community . This compilation also includes all necessary discipline about the structure of the given word such as its etymology , synonyms , antonyms pronunciation , proper usage , etc . More importantly , Svensen definition of dictionary is more focused on its physical aspect , or the components that make up the compilation . Dictionary is distinctly different form other knowledgeal compilation because of its presentation . A dictionary is always presented in an alphabetical based on the how the headwords are being spelled out . But in the case of encyclopedia reading may be presented in two ways , either alphabetical or chronological , and it is always released in volumesFurthermore , Svensen posits that a dictionary presents development in arbitrary way and not on al manner , which means that a definition of terms can be draw out easily based on its alphabetical and not on the or definition the term has . There are two elements that must be noted in this definition , its formal feature and its denotive usage .
Dictionary for Svensen must provide the formal feature of the words to be defined such as its pronunciation , material form (the spelling of the word , inflection , etc . With regards to it referential usage , dictionary must serve as consulting reference to clear confusions to a specific unit such as misspelling , mispronunciation , perplexity on the meaning of unheard word , and the likesAccording to Sterkenburg , Zgusta and Svensen s definitions are not problematic at all , but it is undeniably debatable because of the precept of modernity , which only means that their definitions are applicable only during their period but it is not appropriate for the contemporary period . Dictionary is perpetually evolving along with the progression of time . Dictionary is taking new forms from a simple book to an electronic book . Sterkenburg postulates that given this fact there is a necessity to answer some reign walls regarding the definition of dictionary provided by Zgusta and Svensen . One important debate that must be addressed is Zgusta s elitist stance on dictionary Second is Svensen s structural account of dictionary . And third , the debate on its timeliness2 .5 .3 . Criteria settingSterkenburg suggests that the answering these debates will eventually lead to a definitive definition of dictionary , if and only if a warranted criteria will be realized . The criteria that he is sponsoring are as follows : formal , functional and substance2 .5 .3 .1 . Formal criterionThis concerns itself primarily on the electronic form of dictionary though it can be argued that a modal(prenominal) book of dictionary and an electronic book has no difference at all since both of these forms operate as they are , in fact , the slight difference is only its form James Raiher as cited by Sterkenburg (2003 ) conjectures that an electronic dictionary is exactly the same as a hard-copy dictionary except that the information is held in a text (p . 5 . He even added that functions e-dictionary was only actualized when software deems its possibility . So if there is no big disparity between the two then why espouse the used of e-dictionary ? The answer is simple e-dictionary has more positive features than the primitive hard-copy dictionaryIn an old fashioned dictionary there is only one route you can choose to locate the information of a specific word , and that would be through the alphabetical method . Conversely , e-dictionary will not only save up your time for searching a given term but there are several routes you can select other than the alphabetical way . You can insert today the word you want to locate , or if you don t know the word that you want to find you can utilize its antonyms and synonyms . Referring to the analytic definition will also lead you to the right path . Another beneficial characteristic of e-dictionary is that it can meet the standard of timeliness because you can manipulate its own database , in which you can perform some changes inside the program or create new words (neologism to its memory . Hard-copy dictionary provides a guide on to pronounce specific words , but e-dictionary is more sophisticated because it gives you the opportunity to listen how it should be correctly pronounce2 .5 .3 .2 . structural criterionThis deals primarily on the beneficial functions of dictionary to its users , whether it is an e-dictionary or the general-purpose dictionary The most obvious function of a dictionary is to take account of lexicon Dictionary is storage of customary , formal , rare , new and highly scientific and technical words . Dictionary is the authority when it comes to word information , even if it cannot capture the whole lexical system . Remember , there are words that are still not known to macrocosm and there are words that are utilize on limited communities , which entails that words on dictionary is only conceptualized on representative rump . A word cannot be represented if it is only understood on a certain language-game . A word must have a universal appeal . The point is , a user uses a dictionary to make headway necessary information on a specific words , and he /she wants to acquire these information right away , and if he /she does not find the word and its meaning , then he /she can straightforwardly conclude that the word does not existThe second function of dictionary stresses the xistence of words which can be translated as non-inclusion of a word in the lexicon is equals to its xistence . Dictionary should not be viewed as a mere reference but it must be perceived as a tenet for the entire lexicon Some words are not included in the wordbook because these lexemes are too regional , profane and ersatz . A word is considered regional when it is only understood within a restricted community , therefore it lacks universal appeal or it can be comprehended universally . Profane words are strictly prohibited in the dictionary because they are too vulgar and inappropriate , especially for young users . mintage is an important aspect in the lexicon because it broadens the horizon of a dictionary but artificial words that neologists create are expostulated because these words are unfamiliar and bizarre in nature . Dictionary is a law that aims to ascertain the unmistakable purity of language (ibid .. 7In relation to the second function , dictionary is considered as refinisher of morality because words that are too obscene , irreverent and mundane are eliminated such as curses , labels , and et al . A lexeme that connotes bias and prejudice is explained academically if not omitted because this kind of words has an underlying negative meaning All dictionaries are very cautious and meticulous in the usage of such words because inappropriate usage of the words will lead to sexism and racial discrimination . For example , the word nigga /nigger is not included in the dictionary because it is too offensive on the Afro-American community and because of the belief that this word should only be used by this community since it is them who exclusively grasped the meaning of this word2 .5 .3 .3 . Content-based criterionThis provides a plea on the usage of words , in which a lexeme cannot be considered as part of the lexicon if it is void of any lexical information . As discussed earlier , a dictionary contains necessary facts of the in demand(p) word such as meanings , diction , part of speech syllabication and all lexicographical data . The basic premise that must be fulfilled in this criterion is the union on the law of dictionary and the proper representation of lexical information s intrinsic value Disagreement is a possibility on the intrinsic value of lexical information since the lexicon or the language in particular is arbitrary and perpetually evolving , which is a valid reason to exclude words that are regional , profane and artificialThe content-based criterion guarantees the existence of abstract words because meaning in this criterion is not referent-based , but rather meaning is derived on linguistic signs . Meanings within a lexeme have the lean to overlap if the lexeme is not identified properly , i .e if the word is either a noun or verb . Dictionary outlines numerous meaning of a single word in a concise manner , in to prevent any confusion on how to apply a single in a rational discourseTherefore , definition of dictionary , as circumscribed by Sterkenburg is a prototypical dictionary that is dichotomized into a general-purpose type and electronic type , in which the former is commonly held in alphabetical organization , and the latter is established on the linkages that it has with the substantial elements that surround it . In addition a dictionary maintains the purity of language and helps in understanding one s native language2 .6 . On the Typological Nature of Dictionary2 .6 .1 . User driven typologiesDictionary has numerous specifications from ordinary portfolio of lexemes to the technical volumes of scientific vocabularies that are definitive of its purpose and its usage . Different people use different typologies of dictionaries depending on the subject matter . If a reader wants to find the meaning of a highfaluting word , he /she must consult an ordinary dictionary to patronise the word at hand , i .e . highfaluting is an adjective which means something is grandiose or pretentious , but in everyday language highfaluting refers to being pompous or self-important . Conversely , if a word seeker wants to know the meaning of a scientific term , he /she must confer with technical dictionaries that specialize on a specific subject matter like biology , engineering computer , etc , i .e . iron oxide is a noun that is usually causes corrosion on metal , but this word will simply mean rust in the ordinary pieceThe point is simple according to Swanepoel dictionaries have several typologies because of the users pragmatic nature . New types of dictionaries are being created because of the new demands are radiating from the users . Pragmatism is the machinery that keeps dictionary to its perpetual evolution . Lexicon users utilize dictionary ancillary on the practical antecedent of its enjoyment . A person will not use an ordinary lexicon if he /she wants to define the terms used in physics and this is also works vice-versa . And if all dictionaries fail to define a certain word because it cannot be categorized in any given typologies , then a creation of new typology is needed . As Swanepoel (2003 ) puts it , the success of solution lexical problems of this kind is partly determined by the language user s knowledge of what dictionary (lexical resource ) to consult (p . 44 . The key hereof is the incorporation of pragmatism in the utilization of a dictionary , and how this pragmatism will help in schematization of new typologiesIt goes without saying that enumerating or naming all lexical typologies is utterly unimaginable but this does not serves as a quandary to dictionary users because of one simple fact : users do not necessarily have to know all typologies that they can choose from since all they need is to radiation diagram out what kind of dictionary they must used . Swanepoel (2003 ) defines typology as a system for the classification and clarification of items (p . 45 . A typology concerns itself in determining themes and is made of several subcategories2 .6 .2 . Fundamental attributes of a typologydraws the proportionateness of each major and minor categories within the lexical system Figure 2 . A sample of a lexical system(Source : Swanepoel , 2003Zgusta , Geeraerts and Janssens typologies are the most commonly used types of dictionaries . For Zgusta , a typology should have the following elements : first , it must be discernible from encyclopedias in such a way that both of their axioms have plus properties that are solely definitive of their nature , i .e . a dictionary is a dictionary because it gives all significant information with regards to words , and an encyclopedia is an encyclopedia because it discuss all indispensable information about a certain entity or event . Second , the monolingualism or multilingualism of dictionary must be delineated on the basis of language quantity integrated in each typology . Third , diachronicity and synchronicity in all lexicons must be demarcated on the footing of time opposition . And fourth part , generalness , limitedness , comprehensiveness and standardness of dictionaries must give emphasis on the echelon and /or amplitude of the vocabulary that will eventually be integrated within the mechanism of a specific typology of dictionaryIn this milieu , Geeraerts and Janssen heart that dictionary typologies are base on macro and micro-structural anatomy of the lexicon . When we speak of macro-structure of dictionaries it pertains on the echelon and amplitude of the vocabulary of all language wherein headwords are selected or included ancillary to the theme or type of lexicon . And most importantly , a typology on this structure are envisage in accordance to the principles that encapsulates how the lemmas should be presented , either in alphabetical (general-purpose dictionary ) or ideological (electronic dictionary ) arrangement . On the other hand , the micro-structural make-up of dictionary deals with the precepts of grammatical and syntactical laws that all lexemes included in the lexicon must embody (see the figure belowFigure 3 . In addition , the ing of data to the respective categories or typologies is essential part of this structure because it affirms the rules that must be observed in the making of dictionary . In toto , typological differences in the macro and micro-structural anatomy lie on the full understanding of its echelon and amplitude Figure 3 . Grammatical and syntactical concerns of a dictionary(Source : GEERAERTS , D (2003 ) Meaning and Definition IN STERKENBURG ,br V (Ed ) A Practical Guide to Lexicography (Terminology and Lexicography Research and Practice , 6 ) John Benjamins Publishing CoSwanepoel (2003 ) borrows Murray stance to reify Geeraerts and Janssen s constructs in a nutshell , which states that the center is occupied by (common ) words , in which literary and colloquial usage meet (p . 47 The echelon of the lexis are dissever into scientific , foreign and archaic words are byproducts of literature , in which it leaps from uncommon to common because of its everyday usage in the communityIn summary , the lexical system needfully the varying dictionary typologies because it provides a higher probability that the users need will be satisfied , and since human satisfaction is in flux , the system will always find ways to devise new typologies to meet the new demands of the lexicon users . Typology is buffet wherein consumers have a myriad of choices to choose from . Choices that will certainly satiate the consumers necessitate and will accustom them of what typologies are available to them to tackle an existing lexical dilemma . The continuing needs of the consumer are the impetus for the production of more typologies in the present time and for the future2 .7 . On Geeraerts Meaning and Definition2 .7 .1 . Property attributionOne of the most crucial tasks in the making of dictionary is the attribution of properties in a given word in for it to be considered meaningful . Geeraerts posits that the epicenter of dictionary is the meaning and definition that embodies , thus five considerations must be noted in the making of lexicon . First , lexicographer should necessarily understand the indistinguishability of each word that he will incorporate in the dictionary . He must know exactly the senses that typifies a single word , and lay bare what makes a lexeme independent of other lexemes . Second , the lexicographer has to demarcate what insights must be integrated in the understanding of the lexis , and that insight must be precisely relevant . Third , a word possesses several meanings but the lexicographer needs to know what and which definition is appropriate in a given word , to ensure that vagueness and ambiguity will be prevented . stern , this consideration is critical because it needs to ascertain what linguistic view to be followed and not . And lastly , the lexicographer has to draw out which definitional format to be executed in the making of a lexicon2 .7 .2 . Uniqueness factorA single term should be able to stand alone so that its identity will not be ill-advised with other words . According to Geeraerts , establishing the identity of a term is a Herculean task because words do not exist in isolation (ibid ., 84 , in fact similarity and opposition helps in defining the what and whatnot of the word . Geeraerts postulates that in for the lexicographers to circumstantiate the identity of a word which is independent of another word , they need to delineate the semasiological and onamasiological cleavage within two words Semasiology focuses on the polysemical [defined as diversity of meaning] perspective of words . Finding the identity of a single lexeme starts in its association with other words , through this a semantic data can be draw out and eventually will lead to proper categorization , of which meaning belongs to what word . Onamasiology , on the other hand , does not refer its semantic information on polysemy but rather on the prominent concept inherent in a wordFigure 4 . A summary of polysemes(Source : Geeraerts , 2003As Geeraerts puts it , where in the world does a word can be considered synonymous with other words , and the answer is in the association of similar and opposing conceptsBetween the cleavages , lexicographers must take an in-depth outlook on the semasiological perspective because it is concern on the semantic origin and definition of words in fact it deals greatly on the identity of individual words in the background knowledge of semantic information . Whereas onamasiology has a tendency to create another lexical typology rather than establishing the senses which epitomize a word , its mechanism focuses on the explication of how concepts are being synonymous and antonymous to individual words . Onamasiology outlines the identical relationship between words but not its identity . In summary , semasiology operates on the basis of word to concept pattern , while onamasiology works on incongruous fashion2 .7 .3 . Handling multiple meaningsAs concluded above , lexicographer needs to appeal on semasiology because of its intrinsic feature to identify the identity of individual words . This conclusion necessitates the application of polysemical perspective , which entails that lexicographer must figure out which appropriate definition he must choose to incorporate in a given term to prevent any confusion [see the table for examples ( HYPERLINK http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary .html )]Because of multiplicity of meaning , the lexicographer must figure out which meaning is appropriate to individual words . The lexicographer chooses which words should be included in the lexicon , and in doing so he also choose which definitions are relevant in the validation of words identity or sense . He may restrict his efforts to general vocabulary , or he may include marked words or readings (Sterkenburg ,br 85 , it is his prerogative to do so , for as long as definitions will be definitive to individual words . Definitiveness in words creates their own identity in such a way that emanates how these words should be perceived both in their explicit and connotative value . Definitiveness highlights the nuances of individual words , thus making its definition complete and preciseThe task of appropriating which meaning to which word should not be misconstrued as an exclusive and subjective enterprise of the lexicographer in fact his prerogative in this appropriation should operate in the context of universality , which makes his task highly objective2 .7 .4 . Meaning in the context of realityThe next task that lexicographers must fulfill in the meaning-making process within the dictionary is to apprehend what type of meaning they need to define . The world is vast and because of this , the concept of reality is still contingent . Words are impression of the world , they help in the deciphering the context of reality . It has been conjectured that what we know of the world and of reality is relational to what we know of our language . Humanity perceives words as mere referent of what we derived from the images of the world . A word becomes meaningful because of its referent , and even if abstract concepts do not have tangible properties , we can still explain them through our correlation to abstract words . For example , we associate a cat as a four-legged mammal that has whiskers and under the family of feline , thus when we see a cat , we refer to it as to what animal we know of itBut in the case of words that do have any referent , we conceive it rather we perceive
